The world is learning a potent lesson about the power of religious imagery as violent and deadly demonstrations erupt over European newspaper cartoons depicting the Islamic Prophet Muhammad as a terrorist. The episode also underscores how little many non-Muslims know about Islam, and the importance of having media outlets that are able to cover this world religion with insight and sophistication.

What do those images represent and why have they incited such reactions? Experts note that many cultural and geo-political factors are fueling this latest uproar, but it is clear that religious sensibilities are at the heart of the furor.

The images depict Muhammad, whose life, deeds and teachings are well-known to Muslims but a mystery to most of the West, including Americans. Many non-Muslims misidentify Muhammad as the founder of Islam. To Muslims, Islam has always existed and Muhammad was its greatest and final prophet – the end of a line of prophets that includes Abraham, Moses and Jesus – and not its founder. This illiterate merchant whose life straddled the sixth and seventh centuries was chosen by Allah to hear and pass on the words of the Quran.

In contrast to Jesus, there is a wealth of information on the man who turned Islam into one of the greatest forces in world history and one of the three great monotheistic religions in the Abrahamic tradition, along with Judaism and Christianity. Muhammad was probably the first religious leader to rise up in the full glare of history, according to Omid Safi, assistant professor of religion and philosophy at Colgate University. Contemporary accounts of his life are voluminous. They include such mundane details as how he brushed his teeth in addition to basics on his birth, death and family. The life of Muhammad — orphan, merchant, husband, prophet, warrior and statesman — is taught to Muslims at an early age.

While Christians must reconcile the divinity of their savior with the earthly concerns of a man who walked the earth, Muslims are not faced with the same dilemma. Muslims believe that Muhammad was not the word of God made flesh but a human messenger of God who lived the Quran, according to Mahmoud Mustafa Ayoub, professor of Islamic studies and comparative religion at Temple University.

Scholars offer several points for reporting on the cartoons:
• Islam sternly prohibits images of God and his prophets. Islamic scholars say, however, that images of Muhammad can be found in markets in Shiite Iran, Egypt and South Asia, and that the current controversy has more to do with the characterization of Muhammad. (The Bible contains a prohibition against “graven images” in the Ten Commandments (see Exodus 20:4). Religioustolerance.org offers a comparison of the Ten Commandments in the Bible with similar passages in the Quran.)
• Religious scholars say Muhammad himself has not been a source of controversy within Islam or between Islam and other religions for centuries. Islam’s controversies have primarily arisen over interpretations of the Quran – the words revealed by God to Muhammad – and over issues of who has authority to speak for Islam.
• Debate also arises over sayings of Muhammad outside the Quran. Historian Bernard Lewis noted in his 2002 book The Crisis of Islam that there is a saying attributed to the prophet that not all scholars believe is valid: “If anyone insults me, then any Muslim who hears this must kill him immediately.” Osama bin Laden’s belief that Muslims have a duty to kill Americans is based partly on this saying, coupled with his belief that all Americans insult Muhammad because of the actions of the U.S. government and the nature of U.S. society, scholars say.
• Starting with Muhammad, who experienced success as a merchant, warrior and statesman, Islam has had a history of inspiring followers to feel bound by religious fellowship that transcends national loyalties.
 

Why it matters

Since the attacks of 9/11, non-Muslims’ dearth of knowledge about Islam has been thrown into sharp relief. The current violent protests over the cartoons have shown that while knowledge of Islam has grown among Westerners, the sensitivities of different groups within Islam are still little-understood and potentially explosive.

Questions for reporters

What is the reaction to the Muhammad cartoon controversy among the local Muslim community? Along with academics, talk to local imams and local Muslims in order to get a more well-rounded view.

How are non-Muslim clergy in your community reacting to the controversy? Do they understand it? Are interfaith groups taking on the issue of the cartoons?

Background

• Brian Whitaker, Middle East editor for the British paper The Guardian, has created the Al-Bab Web site to provide information on Arab nations.
• The Islam Project is a multimedia effort aimed at schools, communities and individuals who want a clearer understanding of Islam. The project is partially funded by the Carnegie Corporation. It offers this background on Muhammad.
• The Sabr Foundation, a nonprofit religious educational group offers this history of Muhammad.
• The University of Southern California offers information on Muhammad.

NEWS ARTICLES

• Read a Feb. 8, 2006, Washington Times article about how images of Muhammad have long been shown in museums and libraries without controversy.
• Read a Feb. 8, 2006, Christian Science Monitor story, “Free speech in Europe: mixed rules.”
• Read a Feb. 8, 2006, New York Times story about the power of religious imagery.
• Read “Cartoongate and the Long Road to Civilization” by Mark Levine and “Why We Muslims Are Angry” by Hesham A. Hassaballa on Beliefnet.com.
• This Feb. 6, 2006, New York Times article looks at the escalating violence of Muslim protests against a series of Danish cartoons that depict Muhammad as a terrorist.
• This Feb. 1, 2006 BBC News article provides a European perspective on the controversy.
• Read a May 27, 2005, Los Angeles Times article about the U.S. military saying that soldiers had “abused” the Quran. It’s posted by the Baltimore Sun.
 

National sources

LISTINGS OF SCHOLARS / INSTITUTIONS

• Yale University has this web listing of university departments and centers focusing on Middle Eastern studies.
• History Professor Juan Cole at the University of Michigan has assembled this web listing of academic centers, journals, virtual libraries and country resources on Islam.
• Alan Godlas is an associate professor in the Department of Religion at the University of Georgia and has assembled this resource guide on the Middle East.
• The Macdonald Center for the Study of Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations at Hartford Seminary in Connecticut has a page with links on Muslim-Christian relations, Quran and Islam.
 

INDIVIDUALS

• John Esposito is founding director of Founding Director of Georgetown University’s Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding as well as University Professor of Religion and International Affairs and of Islamic Studies at Georgetown. Contact 202-687-8375, jle2@georgetown.edu.
• Ibrahim Abu-Rabi’ is co-director of the Macdonald Center for the Study of Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations at Hartford Seminary in Connecticut. Contact 860-509-9530, aburabi@hartsem.edu.
• Reza Aslan worked as a research associate at the University of Southern California Center on Public Diplomacy. He wrote the just-released book No God But God: The Origins, Evolution and Future of Islam (Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2006). He has commented on the ongoing controversy regarding the Muhammad cartoons. Contact contact@rezaaslan.com.
• Nihad Awad is executive director of the Council on American-Islamic Relations, which launched a campaign called Explore the Life of Muhammad as a result of the cartoon controversy. The campaign’s web site includes educational resources, books, videos and a list of 30 regional offices that can provide speakers or information. Contact Awad through Ibrahim Hooper, 202-488-8787, 202-744-7726, ihooper@cair-net.org.
• Salam Al-Marayati is executive director of the Muslim Public Affairs Council. The group has condemned both the Danish cartoons and the violence they have spawned. Contact 213-383-3443, salam@mpac.org.
• Mary Rose Oakar is president of the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee. The group has condemned the cartoons, calling them hateful and racist. It posts state chapters. Contact 202-244-2990, president@adc.org.
• Dr. Sayyid M. Syeed is secretary-general of the Islamic Society of North America. Contact 317-839-8157 ext.222.
• Hadia Mubarek is president of Muslim Student Association which lists chapters around the country. Contact president@msa-national.org.

Regional sources

IN THE NORTHEAST

• Natana J. Delong-Bas is a lecturer of near Eastern and Judaic studies at Brandeis University in Waltham, Mass. Delong-Bas wrote the forthcoming book Notable Muslims: Profiles of Muslim Builders of World Civilization & Culture (Oneworld Publications, 2006). Contact 781-736-2978, delongba@brandeis.edu.
• Roy Mottahedeh is the Gurney Professor of Islamic History at Harvard University. His major work is on the premodern social and intellectual history of the Islamic Middle East. He is also the faculty adviser of a new journal The Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review. Contact 617-495-8433, mottahed@fas.harvard.edu.
• Jamal J. Elias is a professor of religion at Amherst College in Massachusetts. He has written on visual religious art in Islam. Contact 413-542-2285, jjelias@amherst.edu.
• Abbas Amanat is chairman of the Council on Middle East Studies at Yale University in New Haven, Conn. Contact 203-432-1368, abbas.amanat@yale.edu.
 

IN THE EAST

• Rashid Khalidi is the Edward Said Professor of Modern Arab Studies and Literature and director of the Middle East Institute at Columbia University in New York. Contact 212-854-2584, rik2101@columbia.edu.
• Yvonne Y Haddad is professor of the history of Islam and Muslim-Christian relations at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. Contact 202-687-2575, haddady@georgetown.edu.
• Ervand Abrahamiam is a professor of history at Baruch College in New York City. He is an expert on Islamic history. Contact 646-312-4327, Ervand_Abrahamian@baruch.cuny.edu.
• Patricia Crone is a professor of Islamic history at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton University in New Jersey. She is an expert in Islamic history and religion. Contact pcrone@Princeton.edu.
• Francis E. Peters is a professor of Middle Eastern and Islamic studies at New York University. He wrote Muhammad and the Origins of Islam (SUNY Press, 1994). Contact 212-998-8895, frank.peters@nyu.edu.
• Mahmoud Mustafa Ayoub is a professor of Islamic studies and comparative religion at Temple University in Philadelphia. He wrote the book Islam in Faith and History (Oneworld Publications, 2005). Contact 215-204-5603, mayoub@temple.edu or ayoubrel@vm.temple.edu.
• Michael Cook is a professor of near Eastern studies at Princeton University in New Jersey. He is the author of Commanding Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thought (Cambridge University Press, 1997). Contact 609-258-5360, mcook@princeton.edu.
• Omid Safi is an assistant professor of philosophy and religion at Colgate University in Hamilton, N.Y. He edited Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism (Oneworld Publications, 2003). Contact 315-228-7690, osafi@mail.colgate.edu.
• Hamid Dabashi is professor of Iranian studies and Middle East and Asian languages and cultures at Columbia University in New York. Contact 212-854-7524, hd14@columbia.edu.

IN THE SOUTHEAST

• Gordon Darnell Newby is a professor of Middle Eastern and South Asian studies at Emory University in Atlanta. He wrote The Making of the Last Prophet: A Reconstruction of the Earliest Biography of Muhammad (University of South Carolina Press, 1989). Contact 404-727-2717, gordon.newby@emory.edu.
• Brannon Wheeler is a visiting faculty member at the Center for Middle East and Islamic Studies at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Md. He co-edited the Historical Dictionary of Prophets in Islam and Judaism (Scarecrow Press, 2003). Contact 410-293-6300, bwheeler@usna.edu.
• Carl W. Ernst is a professor Islamic studies at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill. He wrote Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World (UNC Press, 2003). Contact 919-962-3924, cernst@email.unc.edu.
• Herbert Berg is associate professor of philosophy and religion at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington. His area of expertise is Islam. Contact 910-962-3702, bergh@uncw.edu.
• Timothy Furnish is an assistant professor of history at Georgia Perimeter College in Alpharetta. He is an expert in Islamic and Middle Eastern history and Islamic fundamentalism as well as Mahdism (Islamic messianism. He is the author of Holiest Wars: Islamic Mahdis, their Jihads and Osama bin Laden (Praeger Publishers, 2005). Contact 770-274-5418, tfurnish@gpc.edu.
• Alan Godlas is an associate professor in the Department of Religion at the University of Georgia in Athens. He is an expert on Islam. Contact 706-542-1486, godlas@uga.edu.
• Bruce Lawrence is chair of the Graduate Program in Religion at Duke University in Durham, N.C. He is author of Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama bin Laden (Verso, 2005). He is an expert on comparative fundamentalism and Muslim networks. Contact 919-660-3506, bbl@duke.edu.
 

IN THE SOUTH

• Vincent Joseph Cornell is director of King Fahd Middle East Studies Program at the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville. Contact 479-575-4157, vcornell@uark.edu.
• Claudia Liebeskind is an associate professor of Middle Eastern History at Auburn University in Alabama. Contact 334-844-6644, liebecl@auburn.edu.
• Randall L. Pouwels is a professor of history at the University of Central Arkansas in Conway. He co-edited the book The History of Islam in Africa (Ohio University Press, 2000). Contact 501-450-5625. Randyp@uca.edu.
 

IN THE MIDWEST

• Mohammed Ayoob is University Distinguished Professor of International Relations at James Madison College at Michigan State University in East Lansing. Contact 517-353-3538, ayoob@msu.edu.
• Geneive Abdo is a fellow at the Joan B. Kroc Institute at the University of Notre Dame in Indiana. She is writing a book about Muslims in America. Contact 574-631-6970, Geneive.E.Abdo.3@nd.edu.
• Nelly Van Doorn-Harder is a professor of Islamic studies at the Department of Theology at Valparaiso University in Indiana. Contact 219-464-5307, pieternella.hardervandoorn@valpo.edu.
• Fred M. Donner is a professor of near Eastern history at the University of Chicago. He wrote Seeing the Origins of Islam in Historical Perspective. Contact 773-702-9544, f-donner@uchicago.edu.
• Alam Paynid is director of the Middle East Studies Center at Ohio State University in Columbus. Contact 614-292-5897, payind.1@osu.edu.
• Muqtadar Khan is assistant professor of political science and director of international studies at Adrian College in Adrian, Mich. He is author of American Muslims: Bridging Faith and Freedom (Amana Publications, 2002). Contact 517-265-5161 ext. 3949, mkhan@adrian.edu.
 

IN THE SOUTHWEST

• Norman Stillman is professor and Schusterman/Josey Chair in Judaic History at the University of Oklahoma in Norman. He is an expert in medieval and modern Jewish and Islamic History. Contact 405-325-6001, nstillman@ou.edu.
• David Bryan Cook is an assistant professor of religious studies at Rice University in Houston, Texas. He specializes in the origins and historical development of Islam. Contact 713-348-2440, dbcook@rice.edu.
• Daniel C. Peterson is a professor of Arabic and currently serves as editor-in-chief and director of the Middle Eastern Texts Initiative at the College of Humanities at Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah. Contact 801-422-3396, daniel_peterson@byu.edu.
• Mark R. Woodward is an associate professor of religious studies at Arizona State University in Tempe. One of his areas of research interest is Islam. Contact 480-965-2530, mataram@imap1.asu.edu.
• James E. Lindsay is an associate professor in the department of history at Colorado State University in Fort Collins. His area of expertise is Medieval Islamic history. Contact 970-491-6217, James.Lindsay@colostate.edu.
 

IN THE WEST/NORTHWEST

• Amir Hussain is an associate professor of theological studies at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles. He teaches and publishes about Islam and Muslim lives. Contact 310-338-5987, amir.hussain@lmu.edu.
• Zayn Kassam is an associate professor of religious studies and chair of the Religious Studies Department at Pomona College in California. She is an expert on Islamic society. Contact 909-607-4095, Zayn_Kassam@pomona.edu.
• Joel S. Fetzer is assistant professor of political science at Seaver College at Pepperdine University in Malibu, Calif. He co-wrote Muslims and the State in Britain, France, and Germany (Cambridge University Press, 2004). Contact 310-506-6250, Joel.Fetzer@pepperdine.edu.